Women in Hinduism, contemporary women in Hinduism Essay

Women in Hinduism, contemporary women in Hinduism - Essay Example However, Hinduism is an old religion and like everything that has survived through the ages, Hinduism suffers from rots of unacceptable orthodox practices. One of them, amongst superstition and elaborate ceremonies, is blatant inconsideration of women in the Hindu society. Hinduism seems to have little respect for women compared to men1. Women suffer from many orthodox malpractices. Hinduism opposes the role of women and does not recognize their role in society. So deep is this inconsideration that people misinterpret the scriptures those govern Hinduism and Hindus. Even so, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures â€Å"Vedas† according to many prominent â€Å"pundits† negates women’s importance and role in society2. Hindu religion is plagued with practices that undermine the respect that a woman reserves the rights to receive not just from her near and dear ones, but the society as well. Many of these practices still exist in the Indian Hindu society today. In as much Hindu women were despised in the traditional society, they are slowly participating in economic, political and social process in the modern society. In ancient times, Hindus were conservative people who observed many malpractices that degraded the image and role of women in the society. One of these malpractices included the purdah or the veil system. Married women were not allowed to show their faces to the outside world, only their husbands or children. The purdah system works even today. Another malpractice that was followed by conservative Hindus in ancient times was â€Å"sati.† The practice of sati placed women below men and denied them access to any privileges including education3. In addition to the lowered prestige of women, the Sati system demanded that the widow of man should be burnt in the holy pyre that burnt her husband’s corpse. Child marriage was rampant in ancient India and incidences of child marriage still occur at many places in India. Wid ows were treated as lesser than animals. Through the pages of history, it is evident the status and respect for women was disregarded in all societies, especially all the ancient ones. Women faced a lot of discrimination at the hands of men in the name of tradition or religion. Women rulers would find opposition from male members of the ruling class on the basis of gender pride, even if the ruler proved herself as a capable one. There are numerous examples like the burning of Joan of Arc at the stakes that speak volumes of sheer disregard for female ingenuity and talent. Nonetheless, Hindu women suffered a lot due to their own Holy Scriptures, religion and traditions. Hindu women were dehumanized more in comparison to traditional Muslim, African and Christian women. Muslim female rulers and influential women find larger number in history than Hindus. An example of female rule from the African culture is the story of Cleopatra who rose to absolute power in Egypt while the Romans foug ht their wars for power. Hinduism as a religion does not recognize the fundamental rights for women. The interpretation of the â€Å"Vedas† the ancient scriptures of Hindus paints a hostile attitude towards women in all spheres. The Scripture claims that women are inhuman and have no civil rights4. These interpretations placed women in subordination to men and mandated that women should serve them. The â€Å"pati-parmeshwar† dictum, also a part of the Sati practice, followed widely in the Hindu culture is a direct example of glorification of the husband as a â€Å"God†. This practice dictated the subordination of the wife to the husband and the husband’s full rights over his wife, from physical to psychological aspects. Dowry

French Revolution :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"What is the end of our revolution? The tranquil enjoyment of liberty and equality; the reign of that eternal justice, the laws of which are graven, not on marble or stone, but in the hearts of men, even in the heart of the slave who has forgotten them, and in that of the tyrant who disowns them.† (Robespiere, On the Principles of Political Morality)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"... to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him.† ( Duke of Brunswick, Proclamation)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The poor man is superior to government and the powers of the world; he should address them as a master.† (Saint-Just, Republican Institutes)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The French Revolution was essentially the pivotal culmination of a rising conflict between two opposing conceptions as to the source by which a governing state derived its authority. During the late eighteenth century an ideology accentuating reason, freedom, and the sovereignty of the common man grew in direct opposition to the accepted dogmas of absolutism and divine right of the monarchy. As illustrated within the three aforementioned quotes, the divergent depth between these two philosophies of government created a void, one which would ultimately lead to the French Revolution and alter the course of Western culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Within Robespiere’s quote one is able to observe the aspirations of the Bourgeoisie and peasant revolutionaries; an ideal society of liberty and equality wherein one is as much a subject of the state as the state is a subject of thee. This converging movement towards reasoning and justice grew from the theories of such revolutionary thinkers as Voltaire, Rousseau, and the Encyclopedists, who presented a vision of a liberal community with equal rights and responsibilities, wherein reason replaced the monarch’s claim to divine right as the ultimate authority, and where all men lived in a brotherhood. It must be acknowledged that such influences as France’s severe financial difficulties and the resulting poverty, peasant grievances with such abuses as the seigniorial system, a weak and unstable monarchy under Louis XVI, and the expense of supporting Washington’s army in the New World all attributed to the eventual revolt. However, it was this new ideology set upon equality, justice and freedom, an ideology further fueled by some of the ideas that French soldiers returned with from America, that was the essential keystone which led to the Revolution.

My Favourite Communication Essay

Introduction to communication, I not only have more knowledge, and skills but also having real experiences. Nonverbal Communication and establishing relationship level meaning which are the most important things I had been learned. Nonverbal communication is crucial in relationships because it is essentially the leading factor for communication. There are three different ways that nonverbal communication is shown in relationships: responsiveness, liking, and power. Responsiveness is when we use our eye contact, posture, and body gestures to convey our emotions and thoughts to the other person. For instance, if someone were to slouch in their chair and have a bored look on their face, they are probably conveying that they don’t care about the class or that they are not interested in anything that is being said. Liking is a way to show positive communication towards others. Examples of this would be smiles, hugs, kisses, high fives, etc. Learning about nonverbal communication and how it establishes relationship level meaning is crucial in my everyday life. Nonverbal communication is essential in any relationship so learning about responsiveness, liking, and power, will give me a better understanding on the quality and level of my relationships. For instance, when I am working with a group at university, I will be able to better understand and have better awareness of the people who want to work and those who do not. It not only helps to better understand nonverbal communication but also to be aware of it in every situation. In my future career, nonverbal communication will play a fundamental role. If I am to pursue a profession in sign language interpreting, I will have to be able to tune my senses to everything nonverbal. Sign language is all about facial expression and body language, so learning about postures and gestures in nonverbal communication will really give me a tool to be aware of the nonverbal behaviors.

Boeing Corporation Human Resources Management and...

A study on Boeing Corporation’s Human Resources Management and Organisational Behaviour challenges TABLE OF CONTENTS Aim†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 Company overview i) Company’s background, mission statement †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 ii) Objectives †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.4 iii) Boeing airbus market share†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 News volumes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Aircraft deliveries†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....5 Organisational design (i) Vision†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.6 (ii) Business units†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..7 Organisational structure (i) Key executives†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.7 (ii) Matrix†¦show more content†¦Boeing – Airbus Market Share The rivalry between these giants, the major manufacturers of large medium or long-range passenger aircraft, has today reached epic proportions. Airbus overtook Boeing five years ago to be number one, mostly through the success of its medium capacity long-haul Airbus A-330 and its shorter-range variations such as the A-340. This market share pie-chart of the two head to head competitors-Boeing and Airbus shows that Airbus is leading at the moment. Even though currently the number of orders is higher with Airbus but the total revenues of Boeing is still much higher than that of Airbus. This is due to the fact that Boeing gains profit from other activities such as military aerospace, defence, and space businesses. With the launch of Airbus A380, the market share in the coming year will have slightly a change which is better for Airbus. However, Boeing will be able to regain its market share thanks to the new model of 7E7, Dreamliner and making the competition more aggressive. The follow ing are the revenues that Boeing and Airbus earned in 2007 Commercial aircraft sales revenues: Airbus: $61.6 billion (Net income dwindled to $154.877 million from $2.62 billion in 2006)(Herald Tribute 2007, October 03)Show MoreRelatedManagement Changes Affects Employee Morale1398 Words   |  6 PagesManagement Changes Affects Employee Morale As the world changes, many organization may create changes to their company structure in order to remain successful and look good amongst shareholders. These organizational changes may be beneficial for the company overall. However, it may affect the remaining employee’s morale. Some organizations changes such as layoffs, reduce work hours, a stagnate in benefits increases and rewards may result in management trying to figure out a way to motivate and gainRead MoreImpact of Cultural Differences, Internal and Environmental Factors at Airbus1619 Words   |  7 Pagescorresponding relationship to the personal and organisational performance. 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What Is Rider s Physical Development - 2362 Words

Introduction Rider is a boy who was born August 31st, 2012. He was 41-42 months old when I observed him. He was 41 inches tall and about 35 pounds when I met with him and his family. He lives with his foster parents, his four older foster siblings ranging from the ages of seven to sixteen, and a disabled foster grandmother. His biological parents both visit him on a weekly schedule that are supervised. His foster family is related to him, as the foster father is his maternal uncle. He attends a preschool 5 days a week in the afternoons and his foster mother runs a licensed in home daycare where she watches 5 other children ranging from the ages of eight months to four years old. His foster mother was the only person who I interviewed, but all of his older siblings helped me administer the ASQ. Physical Development Rider’s physical development is not one that I would worry about if I were is caregivers. According to his ASQ, he scored a 60 out of 60 on his gross motor and a 35 out of 60 (the cutoff is 19.82) on his fine motor. The only problem he showed at all in the ASQ was with the writing and holding onto a writing utensil. In an anecdotal note I made on 3/5/2016, he was happy to draw with his older sister, copying her drawings. But the event didn’t last very long and his attention was elsewhere after that interaction. In another anecdotal note I made on 3/12/2016, Rider was much more interested in the new coloring book I brought with me, but his fine motor skills wereShow MoreRelatedHuman Development: The Stages of Infancy1161 Words   |  5 PagesThe stage of infancy lasts from birth until approximately two years of age (Sigelman Rider, 2010). The physical development from infant to child occurs in a cephalocaudal direction: the head and upper body deve lop prior to the lower body (Sigelman Rider, 2010). 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Essay about Jupiter and Semele by Moreau - 1222 Words

Jupiter and Semele by Moreau 19th century French painter Gustave Moreau was an artist highly regarded for his intricate use of images based on myth and legends to create very symbolic and often haunting paintings. Moreau was quoted saying: â€Å"I love my art so much that I shall only be happy when I can practice it for myself alone.† In a time when many artists choose to paint classical mythological subjects as if it were a proper education in Greek and Latin, Moreau was developing his own unusual and personal interpretations using a classical subject matter as his tool for artistic expression. This is very much the case in his painting of Jupiter and Semele (1894-5) in which Moreau explores classical myth in a very personal and†¦show more content†¦A quote such as this gives us and idea of what the artist was trying to create. His elaborate compositions and glowing colors give the painting a dreamlike quality to them. By combining colossal size with contrasting colors and close attention to det ail Moreau is able to create a painting that is a visual journey through Moreau’s vision and interest in the subject matter. Moreau’s often odd visions of antiquity can be very tough to grasp for audiences at times because of there intensity and mystery, when his painting of Orpheus was exhibited at the 1866 Salon Moreau accompanied it with his own explanation to clarify his leap from more traditional methods of depicting the legend. Gustave Moreau is known for taking ancient legends and developing them into more personal and dark versions in a manner much different than typical depictions. In Jupiter and Semele this is achieved by combining intense detail with vivid colors and bizarre shifts in size to create a visual journey for the viewer full of emotion, exploration and creativity. Gustave Moreau is often regarded as a founder of the Symbolist movement, and as inspiration for a radical group of painters called the Fauves. He is known for including many iconographic images in his paintings derived from various sources including important symbolist

Management Theories Free Essays

ABSTRACT Management is the most important part of any organization. No organization can achieve its objectives without proper management. So management is considered the hub of any organization. We will write a custom essay sample on Management Theories or any similar topic only for you Order Now As society continuously relied on group effort, and as many organized groups have become large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance and complexity. To meet the challenges like competition, efficient and economical uses of sources and maximum output, knowledge of management and theories of management is basic requirement. Henceforth, managerial theory has become crucial in the way managers manage complex organizations. This article will provide the basic information of main management theories and how they have developed. It also addresses the management objectives, functions, goals, and essentiality as well as the requirement skills of a Manger. Relating to my current company – AON Vietnam, member of AON Corporation, the article point out which theory of management fit best with the style of management in AON Corporation, one of biggest insurance brokers worldwide and what a Manager at AON should do. Topic 1 2) CONTENTS I. MAIN MANAGEMENT THEORIES 1. Definition of Management According to Drucker (1974) Management is â€Å"the activity of getting things done with the help of others peoples and resources†. It means that management is a process of accomplishing work with the help of other people. According to Weijrich and Koontz (1993) â€Å"Management is process of planning, leading, or ganizing and controlling people within a group in order to achieve goals. It is also the guidance and control of action required to execute a program. It indicates that there should be definite plan/program for affective management (Shied, 2010). On the basis of these definitions it can be concluded that management is a process that includes strategic planning, setting objectives, managing resources, developing the human and financial assets needed to achieve objectives and measuring results. It also includes recording facts and information for later use upon requirement. 2. Management Theories Contemporary theories of management tend to account for and help interpret the rapidly changing nature of today’s organizational environments. Several important management theories which are broadly classified as follows: 1. The Scientific Management School. 2. The Classical Organizational Theory School. 3. The Behavioural School. 4. The Management Science School. 5. Recent developments in Management Theory comprising works such as Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building approach. This discussion will provide a general description of these management theories, how they have developed and the successes that they achieved. A Timeline Overview of Key Management theories pic] a. The Scientific Management School The first management theory is what is popularly referred to as Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management. Frederick Taylor (1856 – 1915) started the era of modern management. Taylor consistently sought to overthrow management â€Å"by rule of thumb† and replace it with actual timed observations leading to â€Å"the one best† practice. â€Å"Taylori sm† involved breaking down the components of manual tasks in manufacturing environments, timing each movement (‘time and motion’ studies) so that there could be a proven best way to perform each task. Thus employees could be trained to be ‘first class’ within their job. This type of management was particularly relevant to performance drives e. g ‘Action On’ projects. It has to be acknowledged that from an economic standpoint, Taylorism was an extreme success. Application of his methods yielded significant improvements in productivity. For example, improvements such as his shovel work at Bethlehem Works, which reduced the workers needed to shovel from 500 to 140. Henceforth, Taylor proposed four underlying principles of management: First, there is need to develop a ‘science of work’ to replace old rule-of-thumb methods: pay and other rewards linked to achievement of ‘optimum goals’ – measures of work performance and output; failure to achieve these would in contrast result in loss of earnings. – Second, workers to be ‘scientifically’ selected and developed: training each to be ‘first-class’ at some specific task. – Third the ‘science of work’ to be brought together with scientifically selected and trained people to achieve the best results. Finally, work and responsibility to be divided equally between workers and management cooperating together in close interdependence. This was a rigid system where every task became discrete and specialized. However, many critics, both historical and contemporary, have pointed out that Taylor’s theories tend to â€Å"dehumanize† the workers. Therefore, in summary, while the scientific management technique has been employed to increase productivity and efficiency both in private and public services, it has also had the disadvantages of ignoring many of the human aspects of employment. This led to the creation of boring repetitive jobs with the introduction of systems for tight control and the alienation of shop floor employees from their managers. b. Classical Organizational Theory School In this category of management theory are the works of Henri Fayol’s administrative theory and Max Weber’s bureaucratic theory. Administrative Theory Henri Fayol’s administrative theory mainly focuses on the personal duties of management at a much more granular level. Fayol believed that management had five principle roles: †¢ Forecasting and planning. †¢ Organizing. †¢ Commanding Co-ordinating †¢ Controlling. Forecasting and planning was the act of anticipating the future and acting accordingly. Organization was the development of the institution’s resources, both material and human. Commanding was keeping the institution’s actions and processes running. Co-ordination was the alignment and harmonization of the group’s efforts. Finally, control meant that the above activities were performed in accordance with appropriate rules and procedures. Fayol also developed fourteen principles of administration to go along with management’s five primary roles. These principles are: specialization/division of labor, authority with responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interest to the general interest, remuneration of staff, centralization, scalar chain/line of authority, order, equity, stability of tenure, initiative, and esprit de corps. Fayol clearly believed personal effort and team dynamics were part of an â€Å"ideal† organization. Fayol’s five principle roles of management are still actively practiced today. The concept of giving appropriate authority with responsibility is also widely commented on and is well practiced. Unfortunately, his principles of â€Å"unity of command† and â€Å"unity of direction† are consistently violated in â€Å"matrix management†, the structure of choice for many of today’s companies. Bureaucratic Theory Max Weber (1864 – 1924) postulated that western civilization was shifting from â€Å"wertrational† (or value oriented) thinking, affective action (action derived from emotions), and traditional action (action derived from past precedent) to â€Å"zweckational† (or technocratic) thinking. He believed that civilization was changing to seek technically optimal results at the expense of emotional or humanistic content. Through analyses of organizations, Weber identified three basic types of legitimate authority: – Traditional authority: where acceptance of those in authority arose from tradition and custom. – Charismatic authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty to, and confidence in, the personal qualities of the ruler. – Rational-legal authority: where acceptance arises out of the office, or position, of the person in authority as bounded by the rules and procedures of the organization. It is the rational-legal authority form that exists in most organizations today and this is the form to which Weber ascribed the term ‘bureaucracy’. The main features of bureaucracy according to Weber were: †¢ A continuous organization or functions bounded by rules. †¢ That individual functioned within the limits of the specialization of the work, the degree of authority allocated and the rules governing the exercise of authority. †¢ A  hierarchical  structure of offices. †¢ Appointment to offices made on the grounds of technical competence only. †¢ The separation of officials from the ownership of the organization. †¢ The authority was vested in the official positions and not in the personalities that held these posts. Rules, decisions and actions were formulated and recorded in writing. It is not coincidence that Weber’s writings were at a time of the major industrial revolutions and the growth of large complex organizations out of the cottage industries and/or entrepreneurial businesses. c. Behavioural School The key scholar under this category is Elton Mayo. The origin of behavioralism is the human relations movement that was a result of the Hawthorne Works Experiment that started in the early 1920s. Elton Mayo and his associates’ experiments disproved Taylor’s beliefs that science dictated hat the highest productivity was found in ‘the one best way’ and that way could be obtained by controlled experiment. The Hawthorne studies attempted to determine the effects of lighting on worker productivity. When these experiments showed no clear correlation between light level and productivity the experiments then started looking at other factors. These factors that were considered when Mayo was working with a group of women included no rest breaks, no free more hours in the work-day/work-week or fewer hours in the workday/work-week. With each of these changes, productivity went up. When the women were put back to their original hours and conditions, they set a productivity record. These results showed that the group dynamics and social makeup of an organization were an important force either for or against higher productivity. This outcome caused the call for greater participation for the workers, greater trust and openness in the working environment, and a greater attention to teams and groups in the work place. Finally, while Taylor’s impacts were the establishment of the industrial engineering, quality control and personnel departments, the human relations movement’s greatest impact came in what the organization’s leadership and personnel department were doing. The seemingly new concepts of â€Å"group dynamics†, â€Å"teamwork†, and organizational â€Å"social systems†, all stem from Mayo’s work in the mid-1920s. d. Management Science Theories Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) postulated management ideas as contained in â€Å"Theory X† and â€Å"Theory Y†. Using human behaviour research, he noted that the way an organization runs depends on the beliefs of its managers. â€Å"Theory X† gives a negative view of human behaviour and management that he considered to have dominated management theory from Fayol onwards – especially Taylorism. It also assumes that most people are basically immature, need direction and control, and are incapable of taking responsibility. They are viewed as lazy, dislike work and need a mixture of financial inducements and threat of loss of their job to make them work (‘carrot and stick’ mentality). Theory Y†, the opposite of â€Å"Theory X†, argues that people want to fulfil themselves by seeking self-respect, self-development, and self-fulfilment at work as in life in general. The six basic assumptions for ‘Theory Y’ are: work is as natural as play or rest – the average human being does not inherently dislike work, whether work is a source of pleasure or a punishment (to be avoided) depends on nature of the work and its management. Second, effort at work need not depend on threat of punishment – if committed to objectives then self-direction and self-control rather than external controls. Third, commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. Satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs can be directed towards the objectives of the organization. Fourth, the average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Fifth, high degrees of imagination, ingenuity and creativity are not restricted to a narrow group but are widely distributed in the population. Lastly, under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials of the average human being are being only partly utilized. . Recent Developments in Management Theory Under this category of theory are the Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building theory. The systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nat ure of the system is changed as well. A system can be looked at as having inputs (e. g. , resources such as raw materials, money, technologies, and people), processes (e. g. planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), outputs (products or services) and outcomes (e. g. , enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity). Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the system. The Chaos theory is advocated by Tom Peters (1942). Chaos theorists suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, they become more volatile and must, therefore, expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely. It will need an effective manager for the latter worst scenario not to happen. Team Building approach or theory emphasizes quality circles, best practices, and continuous improvement. It is a theory that mainly hinges on reliance on teamwork. It also emphasizes flattening of management pyramid, and reducing the levels of hierarchy. Finally, it is all about consensus management – i. e. , involving more people at all levels in decision-making. 3. Management theory applied to AON II. WHAT A MANAGER DOES Managing, like all other practices – whether medicine, music composition, engineering, accountancy, or even baseball – is an art; it is know-how. It is doing things in the light of the realities of a situation. Managers just don’t go out and perform their responsibilities. A good manager should discover how to master 05 basic functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. †¢ Planning:  This step involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal. For example, that the organization’s goal is to improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are necessary to accomplish that goal. These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving company sales. †¢ Organizing:  After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize his team and materials according to his plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing. †¢ Staffing:  After a manager discerns his area’s needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A manager in a large organization often works with the company’s human resources department to accomplish this goal. †¢ Leading:  A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve with employees. †¢ Controlling:  After the other elements are in place, a manager’s job is not finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area’s plans remain on track. All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization. Roles performed by managers In his classic book,  The Nature of Managerial Work,  Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories: †¢ Interpersonal:  This role involves human interaction. †¢ Informational:  This role involves the sharing and analyzing of information. †¢ Decisional:  This role involves decision making. The below table  contains a more in-depth look at each category of roles that help managers carry out all five functions described in the preceding â€Å"Functions of Managers† section. Mintzberg’s Set of Ten Roles | | |Category | |Role | |Activity | | |Informational | |Monitor | |Seek and receive information; scan periodicals and reports; maintain personal contact with stakeholders. | | | | | |Disseminator | |Forward information to organization members via memos, reports, and phone calls. | | | | |Spokesperson | |Transmit information to outsiders via reports, memos, and speeches. | | | |Interpersonal | |Figurehead | |Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties, such as greeting visitors and signing legal documents. | | | | |Leader | |Direct and motivate subordinates; counsel and communicate with subordinates. | | | | |Liaison | |Maintain information links both inside and outside organization via mail, phone calls, and meetings. | | |Decisional | |Entrepr eneur | |Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas and delegate idea responsibility to thers. | | | | | |Disturbance handler | |Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environments. | | | | |Resource allocator | |Decide who gets resources; prepare budgets; set schedules and determine priorities. | | | | |Negotiator | |Represent department during negotiations of union contracts, sales, purchases, and budgets. | | | Skills needed by managers Not everyone can be a manager. Certain  skills,  or abilities to translate knowledge into action that results in desired performance, are required to help other employees become more productive. These skills fall under the following categories: Technical:  This skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Mana gers acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them through training and job experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of management. †¢ Human:  This skill demonstrates the ability to work well in cooperation with others. Human skills emerge in the workplace as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. A anager with good human skills has a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity to understand or empathize with the feelings of others. Some managers are naturally born with great human skills, while others improve their skills through classes or experience. No matter how human skills are acquired, they’re critical for all managers because of the highly interpersonal nature of managerial work. †¢ Conceptual:  This skill calls for the ability to think analytically. Analytical skills enable managers to break down problems into smaller parts, to see the relati ons among the parts, and to recognize the implications of any one problem for others. As managers assume ever-higher responsibilities in organizations, they must deal with more ambiguous problems that have long-term consequences. Again, managers may acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them by training and job experience. The higher the management level, the more important conceptual skills become. †¢ Designing skill is the ability to solve problems in ways that will benefit the enterprise. To be effective, particularly at upper organizational levels, managers must be able to do more than see a problem. In addition, they must have the skill of a good design engineer in working out a practical solution to a problem. Managers must also have that valuable skill of being able to design a workable solution to the problem in the light of the realities they face. It has, however, got to be mentioned that the relative importance of these skills may differ at various levels in the organization hierarchy. Although all four categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility. How to cite Management Theories, Essay examples